Sources: Qur'an 2:256, 16:125; Tafsir Ibn Kathir; al-Tabari (Umar's treaty with Jerusalem); Ibn Battuta, Rihla; T. W. Arnold, The Preaching of Islam; R. Bulliet, Conversion to Islam in the Medieval Period; Pew Research Center (2025, data as of 2020). Researched with Qaf.
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